Bon Odori in the American Concentration Camps

Obon is a Buddhist memorial holiday for the dead typically celebrated around the days of July 15 or August 15. ^[2] "Obon" and "Bon" are abbreviated forms of "Urabon," the Japanese transliteration of "Ullambana." In the Ullambana Sutra, the Buddha's disciple, Maudgalyayana, discovered his deceased mother suffering in hellish conditions. Following the Buddha's instructions, Maudgalyayana made offerings to the community of monks and nuns, received their prayers on behalf of his family, and attained salvation not only for his mother but for seven generations of ancestors. ^[3]

In Japan, dutiful Obon observers return to their hometowns, visit and clean their family graves, make offerings, conduct religious services, and participate in Bon odori, often held in parks, plazas, public spaces, or temple and shrine grounds. Ancestral spirits are said to visit the physical world during Obon, guided by candles, lanterns, or bonfires. For some participants, this visitation is interpreted metaphorically as the remembrance of those who have died.

Bon odori may have developed from Buddhist chanting and ritual dance ( odori nembutsu ) associated with the monks Kuya Shonin in the 10th century and Ippen Shonin in the 13th century. This practice was incorporated into Obon observances throughout Japan, producing a wide range of local and regional dances. Bon odori flourished until the early years of the Meiji period, when the new government suppressed Buddhism in favor of Shinto ( shinbutsu bunri ). By the mid-1870s, these edicts were no longer strictly enforced and the traditions of Obon and Bon odori gradually resumed in Japan.

In the 1880s, Japanese laborers began to migrate in considerable numbers to the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the United States of America. The earliest recorded Obon with Bon odori in Hawai`i took place in 1885 on a sugar plantation north of Hilo in Wainaku. ^[4] In time, informal groups of singers, flutists, taiko drummers, and percussionists played for Bon odori throughout Hawai`i, especially among emigrants from Fukushima, Hiroshima, Niigata, Yamaguchi, and later, Okinawa. ^[5]

In the continental United States, Bon odori was danced in the 1920s at prefectural association ( kenjinkai ) picnics, an Obon and kenjinkai gathering in San Fernando Valley in 1923, and Koyasan Buddhist Temple's Obon in Los Angeles from 1922 through the 1930s. However, most temples celebrated Obon with religious services, guest speakers, and a cemetery visit, possibly including entertainment like a theater performance or a Japanese movie. Bon odori became a regular part of Obon celebrations in the 1930s through the work of Reverends Yoshio Iwanaga and Masao Washioka, and Teruko Naito.

Reverend Yoshio Iwanaga moved from Japan to California in 1930 and taught Japanese folk dance and Bon odori to Buddhist temple communities along the West Coast from British Columbia to Los Angeles. Teruko Naito, wife of Reverend Shozen Naito, led Bon odori in Sacramento beginning in 1933, and Reverend Masao Washioka taught Bon odori in the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles from 1933 to 1939. By the mid-1930s, Bon odori was an established religious practice in Hawai`i and the continental United States, and additionally performed at secular events such as school programs, citywide celebrations, Bon odori contests in Hawai`i, and the annual Nisei Week Festival in Los Angeles. ^[6]

After the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the passing of Executive Order 9066 in February 1942, people of Japanese descent living on the American West Coast were incarcerated by the U.S. government in temporary detention centers hastily built on fairgrounds, racetracks, former labor camps, and livestock facilities. Despite the harrowing conditions, Obon with Bon odori was celebrated that summer in Merced , Pinedale , Pomona , Stockton , Tanforan , and Tulare . Bon odori was included in Puyallup's Independence Day program and was the final number in Portland's mid-July Talent Revue. ^[7]

Obon organizers in Pomona anticipated a crowd of 1,000 dancers and decorated the dance area and yagura with streamers, pennants, and flowers. The Tulare Obon featured 700 dancers while Stockton counted 500 dancers and 3,500 spectators. Bon odori was taught by Yoshiko Fujimoto, Miye Ichiki, and Yukichi Nishiyori in Pinedale and supervised by Mrs. Higaki, Mrs. Kato, and Mabel Furukawa in Merced, where the camp newspaper reported over 400 dancers in kimono. Obon planners in Merced even attempted to locate taiko drummers, suggesting that they had a taiko or some kind of drum to accompany the dances. ^[8]

At the Santa Fe camp, run by the Department of Justice beginning in February 1942, the all-male population observed Obon with Buddhist services, Bon odori, a yagura decorated with lanterns, and a large taiko. In addition, some of the men dressed as women for the Bon odori using costumes from the camp's amateur kabuki group. ^[9]

From May to November 1942, the incarcerated population was moved further inland to more permanent concentration camps administered by the War Relocation Authority (WRA). Over the next three years, Obon was celebrated in all ten of the WRA camps with Buddhist services, Bon odori, music, lighting, decorations, and refreshments. Some communities even printed Obon posters and programs, organized a bazaar, built a yagura, or obtained or made a taiko.

Participants danced to amplified 78-rpm records of traditional Japanese folk songs, prewar Japanese popular songs, new Bon odori from the 1930s, and songs commissioned by the Nisei Week organizers in 1935 ("Rafu Ondo" and "America Ondo"). In Rohwer, "Goshu Ondo" was performed live, and at least two Bon odori songs were written in camp ("Minidoka Ondo" and "Poston Ondo"). The earliest Obon with Bon odori was held in July 1942 at Tule Lake and the latest in July 1945 at Gila River and Rohwer .

Dance practices began in late July for the first Obon with Bon odori at the Amache concentration camp in 1943. Volunteers cleaned the camp cemetery on August 8, ministers conducted Obon services the weekend of August 14-15, and Bon odori was planned for both evenings at the athletic field. Dances such as "Goshu Ondo," "Sado Okesa," "Sakura Ondo," "Shinsaku Bon Odori," and "Ureshikaro" were accompanied by drummers Jutaro Eugene Gondo and Frank Koshiro Kumagai, perched on a tall yagura playing a shime daiko (rope-tied drum), hyoshige (wooden clappers), and a western bass drum. The 1944 Obon included two nights of Bon odori led by Yukino Okubo, and the 1945 Obon consisted of religious services without dancing. ^[10]

Gila River in Arizona comprised two separate camps known as Canal and Butte. The first Obon in Canal was held in September 1942 with approximately 5,000 spectators, 300 dancers with fans and kachi-kachi, an older gentleman playing a taiko made from a keg and animal skin, and a number of adults masquerading as characters like samurai, Charlie Chaplin, and a white woman trying to dance Bon odori. The Butte camp opened later and held its first Obon in August 1943 with dance instruction by Kimiko Murakami. In 1944, Bon odori was repeated in both camps and eleven young Butte residents were permitted to participate in an Obon gathering outside of camp at the Ishikawa residence near Mesa, Arizona. Obon was celebrated at both camps in 1945, but only Butte included Bon odori. ^[11]

The Heart Mountain concentration camp opened in mid-August 1942. The first Obon with Bon odori was organized by the Heart Mountain Buddhist Church on July 10-11, 1943 with approximately 1,000 dancers anticipated. Later that week, the Nishi Hongwanji and Nichiren temples held a combined Obon service on July 14 with Bon odori on July 15. Before the summer ended, a final Bon odori was held for the installation service of a shrine made by carpenters Shinzaburo and Gentaro Nishiura. In 1944, the different Buddhist groups worked together and held a combined Obon with Bon odori on July 15-16 with a large yagura, colorful decorations, and snacks. Bon odori teachers included Miyeko "Mickey" Azeka and Kimiko Tamura. Obon was celebrated in 1945, but likely without Bon odori. ^[12]

In October 1942, the Jerome concentration camp opened near the town of Denson, Arkansas, twenty-seven miles south of the Rohwer camp. Bon odori was included in a two-day Carnival in May 1943, and nightly dance practices began in early July in preparation for Denson Buddhist Church's Obon on July 17-18. Fusaye Ozaki, Midori Seo, and Kaoru Shimada led several hundred dancers in "Bon Odori Uta," "Kagoshima Ohara Bushi," "Nagoya Yoitoko," "Sado Okesa," and "Tokyo Jinku" on the softball field before approximately 3,000 spectators. On the second night, a group of twenty-five dancers from the Rohwer Young Buddhist Association was allowed to join the festivities. Jerome was the first camp to close in June 1944. ^[13]

Bon odori was danced in the Manzanar concentration camp at the Fourth of July celebration in 1942, and at Obon on August 16 with dance instruction by Min Furuto, Jimmie Hashimoto, Marian Hatanaka, Harry Kimura, Terry Taguwa, Yuki Teshiba, and Hide Tochioka. The 1943 Obon opened with an interfaith dedication of a concrete obelisk memorializing those who died in camp. Bon odori was held on August 14-15 with a yagura, large taiko, spotlights, and an estimated 1,500 dancers including girls in kimono, well-dressed boys from block 15, and staff teacher Eve Beekman. That same summer, the San Pedro Yogores club organized a fundraising Obon dance to purchase baseball equipment, and 200 volunteers danced at the camp hospital for bedridden patients. An Obon with Bon odori was held in 1944 and an Obon service without dance was observed in 1945. ^[14]

In July 1943, a selection of Bon odori including "Minidoka Ondo" (music and lyrics lost), was presented at an outdoor revue in the Minidoka concentration camp. On August 21-22, a camp-wide committee organized Bon odori festivals at two different locations with 20 dance instructors, 300 dancers and 3,500 spectators on the east side on Saturday, and 200 dancers and 2,500 spectators on the west side on Sunday. In March 1944, a week-long Bon odori recreation class was held for young people, and the United Buddhist Church presented Bon odori on August 4-5 led by a group of men with the last names Akimoto, Fugami, Hashiguchi, Hayashi, Hirabayashi, Kido, Kobayashi, Maki, Morimoto, Nakagaki, Nomaguchi, Omoto, Ota, Sakoda, Uyeki, Yanagimoto, and Yuki; and women with the last names Asakura, Fujimoto, Kanemitsu, Nagata, and Nomura. Obon was not publicly observed in 1945. ^[15]

Poston consisted of three camps separated by desert and farmland. The first Obon in Poston was held in Camp I on August 22-23, 1942, with over 700 participants dancing "Kagoshima Ohara Bushi," "Rafu Ondo," and "Sakka Bushi," with the addition of "America Ondo" on the second night. Bon odori was taught by Mrs. Horiye, Laurie Yamaguchi, and others, and accompanied by an older gentleman playing a drum. Camp III organized its own Obon in September with Koraku Yamane leading dances such as "Bon Odori Uta," "Shanghai no Hanauri Musume," and Katsumi "Kats" Manaka's humorous "Poston Ondo" (music and lyrics lost). In 1943, Reverend Yoshio Iwanaga, who lived in Camp II, led Bon odori for Obon festivals in Camps I and III. In 1944, Bon odori in Camp III was taught by Fusako Ashida, Anna Mae Fujino, Minnie Ichiyama, Miyako Sasaki, and Nobuko Setoguchi. Obon services were held in 1945, likely without Bon odori. ^[16]

Bon odori was first presented in the Rohwer concentration camp at the 1943 Fourth of July Jamboree with approximately 700 people. Dances such as "Nagoya Yoitoko," "Sonna Okata ga Attanara," and "Tennen no Bi" were taught by Kasui Deguchi with assistance from Grace Hagio, Yukino Okubo, and LoRayne Sugimoto. The first Obon with Bon odori, held on August 14-15, included "Hiroshima Ondo," "Kagoshima Ohara Bushi," "Nagoya Yoitoko," "Shinsaku Bon Odori," "Sonna Okata ga Attanara," "Tairiku Bushi," and "Tonari Gumi" with taiko accompaniment by Isamu "Sam" Sugimoto and a special performance of "Goshu Ondo" by singer Shokichi Morino and drummer George Hiki. In 1944, these dances were repeated with the addition of "Bon Odori Uta," "Sakura Ondo," "Shin Okesa Bushi," "Ten kara Tabako ga," and others. The final Obon with Bon odori took place on July 14-15, 1945. At some point, Rev. Iwanaga visited Rohwer and taught Japanese dance and Bon odori. ^[17]

At the Topaz concentration camp, Bon odori was included in the Harvest Festival in November 1942 and the Buddhist Hanamatsuri service in May 1943. The first Obon with Bon odori was held on August 14-15, 1943 with dances led by Grace Fujimoto, Fumi and Masako Hanyu, Yasuko Ishida, June Nakayama, Masako Neishi, and Harue Yamamoto. Wielding fans, kachi-kachi, and flags, over 200 participants danced "America Ondo," "Gion Kouta," "Hinomaru Okesa," "Kagoshima Ohara Bushi," "Kurogane Bushi," "Mokyo Bushi," "Nisei Koushinkyoku," "Nisei Musume Koushinkyoku," "Sakura Ondo," "Shin Okesa," and "Yasuki Bushi to Heitai." In 1944, two threatening letters were left at the Topaz Buddhist Church demanding the cancellation of Bon odori. The anonymous authors may have perceived the dancing as disrespectful in the face of Japanese American military casualties, despite the holiday being a memorial for the dead. In the end, Obon with Bon odori was observed with Sahomi Tachibana leading the dances. Obon services were held in 1945 without Bon odori. ^[18]

The first Obon with Bon odori at the Tule Lake concentration camp took place on July 18-19, 1942 with hundreds of dancers and thousands of spectators. The Fourth of July festival in 1943 included Bon odori such as "Kagoshima Ohara Bushi," "Mizuho Ondo," "Sakura Ondo," and "Tokyo Ondo" led by professional dancers Misa Bando and Sahomi Tachibana and their students Lillian Fukunaga, Shizuko Inbe, Aiko and Mitsuko Suekawa, and Yuriko Lily Tsutsui. On July 17-18, the second Obon with Bon odori was presented by the Buddhist Church and Young Buddhist Association. In 1944, a series of tragic events took place including two murders, an unjust acquittal, a riot, police force resignations, and rumors of sexual assault. Under these circumstances, Obon with Bon odori took place in different wards, but the camp-wide event was cancelled. In 1945, Obon services were held at multiple locations throughout the camp, likely without Bon odori. ^[19]

In the spring and summer of 1945, camp newspapers were dotted with reports of imminent camp closures, individual departures, job opportunities, and commentaries on the character of various cities. With the exception of Butte in Gila River and Rohwer, most camps celebrated Obon that year with simple religious services and no dancing. By the end of November 1945, Amache, Gila River, Heart Mountain, Jerome, Manzanar, Minidoka, Poston, Rohwer, and Topaz had closed.

After the war, Bon odori was likely considered too public and showy, and therefore, too risky an endeavor for new and returning communities. In 1948, however, the Buddhist Churches of America celebrated its 50th-anniversary "Golden Jubilee" with nine days of programming, concluding with Bon odori on the plaza of the San Francisco Civic Center. The following month, photos of the event were featured in a multiple-page article in LIFE magazine.

Bon odori gradually returned to the West Coast and Mountain states, and was danced for the first time in locations such as Chicago, Cleveland, Minneapolis, New York City, Washington D.C., and rural Seabrook, New Jersey. To this day, Bon odori remains a vibrant religious and cultural practice and is commonly danced at Japanese Buddhist temples, community centers, schools, festivals, and pilgrimages to former concentration camp sites.

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